Antibiotics and “The War on Bacteria”

While antibiotics have been lifesaving, the over-prescription of antibiotics has sparked the evolution of drug-resistant strains of life threatening bacteria, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths each year.[1] The US Centers for Disease Control estimate that up to 50% of antibiotics prescribed in the US are unnecessary.[2] Unfortunately, the use of antibiotics is often prescribed for those groups who are more vulnerable to dysbiosis, including infants born via C-section[3] and in those born preterm, compared to term infants born vaginally,[4] potentially compounding the problems. Micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites cause many of the world’s diseases, yet only bacterial infections are usually susceptible to treatment with commonly prescribed antibiotics.

However, more subtle side effects of antibiotics on the gut microbiome are only just beginning to be discovered. Broad-spectrum antibiotics can impact up to 30% of the bacteria among the human microbiota, resulting in severe loss of species and function[5] and begins immediately following antibiotic administration. The effects can sometimes last for years after its cessation,[6] and may also lead to the total extinction of some beneficial microbial species. As few as three days of treatment with the most commonly prescribed antibiotics can result in sustained reductions in microbiota diversity.[7] A typical two-week course of high-dose antibiotic treatment, as might be used for an ear infection, can wipe out most of the beneficial gut microbes.

These antibiotic-induced changes in the microbiota have been linked to many disease states including increased infections, metabolic disturbances, obesity, autoimmunity,[8] and mental health conditions. Common outcomes of antibiotics the antibiotic-disturbed gut microbiota are diarrhea and infections with Clostridium difficile,[9] particularly in infants.[10]

Early life exposure to antibiotics presents the greatest risk of long-term damage to the gut microbiota and the more you take, the worse it is.[11] In young children, antibiotics may change the development of the “adult” microbiota, and not allow its normal maturation.[12] It has also been hypothesized to cause a delay in microbial maturation from six to 12 months after birth.[13] Early life exposure is also associated with numerous diseases later in life including IBD,[14] obesity,[15] and asthma, as well as the development of immune-mediated[16] metabolic and neurological diseases.[17]

In a meta-analysis of eight studies including 12,082 subjects, antibiotic use in the first year of life was significantly associated with two-fold (200%) increased chance of the child having asthma.[18] One study reported the use of antibiotics in newborns increased the risk of developing asthma by 24 times. Probiotics during the neonatal period were protective and reduced the risk by as much as 86% for childhood asthma for kids at risk.[19] Studies of mice treated with antibiotics in early life revealed altered microbial populations within the gut microbiota and consequently increased the susceptibility of these mice to asthma.[20]

Antibiotic use has also been shown to have long-term effects on brain neurochemistry and behavior. Such use is known to alter the intestinal microbiome with subsequent changes in microbiota to gut-brain axis[21] and result in poorer neuro-cognitive outcomes later in life.[22]

Even treatment with a single antibiotic course was associated with a 25% higher risk for depression and the risk increased with recurrent antibiotic exposures to 40% for two to five courses and 56% for more than five courses of antibiotics. The higher the rates of antibiotic use, the higher the rates of depression.[23] Animal studies have shown that high doses of a cocktail of antibiotics induced lasting changes in gut microbiota associated with behavioural alterations.[24]

Animal studies of early life exposure to antibiotics show lasting immune and metabolic consequences.[25] Administration of low doses of penicillin to mice early in life increases the risk of weight gain and obesity and promotes lipid accumulation by altering the gut microbiota.[26] Mice treated continuously with low-dose penicillin from one week before birth until weaning exhibited higher body weight and fat mass in adulthood, although the microbial structure returned to normal after four weeks of antibiotics cessation.[27] There is also evidence of antibiotics playing a role in the development of IBD in children[28] and that antibiotic usage during the first year of life was more common in those diagnosed with IBD later in life.[29]

Antibiotics and pregnancy

In human studies, mother’s use of antibiotics during pregnancy is consistently associated with cow’s milk allergy,[30] wheeze, asthma,[31] and atopic dermatitis,[32] with the strongest association for antibiotic use in the third trimester of pregnancy.[33] A study of 306 children with asthma showed that mother’s use of antibiotics during pregnancy increased the risk by a whopping four times (390%).[34] Low-dose penicillin in late pregnancy and early postnatal life in the offspring of mice resulted in lasting effects on gut microbiota, increased brain inflammation, and resulted in anxiety-like behaviours and displays of aggression.[35] Similar results have been shown for antibiotic exposure through breastfeeding.[36]

“Gut Secrets” the book
https://www.drdingle.com/collectio…/book-sales/…/gut-secrets

Gut health tour dates
https://www.drdingle.com/pages/events-and-tour-dates

Gut Health, Gut Healing Australia. facebook group
https://www.facebook.com/groups/1351038408375613/

[1] Fleming-Dutra et al., 2016.

[2] Fleming-Dutra et al., 2016.

[3] Penders et al., 2006.

[4] Forsgren et al., 2017.

[5] Francino, 2016.

[6] Jakobsson et al., 2010.

[7] Shira et al., 2016.

[8] Francino, 2016.

[9] Ng et al., 2013.

[10] Rousseau et al., 2011.

[11] Fouhy et al., 2012; Tanaka et al., 2009.

[12] Bokulich et al., 2016.

[13] Ibid, 2016.

[14] Hviid et al., 2011.

[15] Azad et al., 2014.

[16] Metsälä et al., 2013.

[17] Arrieta et al., 2014.

[18] Marra et al., 2006.

[19] Zhang et al., 2017.

[20] Russell et al., 2012.

[21] Rogers et al., 2016; Tochitani et al., 2016.

[22] Russell et al., 2013.

[23] Lurie et al., 2015.

[24] Bercik, P. et al., 2011; Desbonnet, L. et al., 2015; Fröhlich, E. E. et al., 2016; Wang, T. et al., 2015.

[25] Russell et al., 2013; Cox et al., 2014.

[26] Cox et al., 2014.

[27] Ibid, 2014.

[28] Shaw et al., 2010;  Ortqvist et al., 2017.

[29] Shaw et al., 2010.

[30] Chu et al., 2015.

[31] Stensballe et al., 2013; Kashanian et al., 2017; Mulder et al., 2016; Murk et al., 2011.

[32] Timm et al., 2017.

[33] Zhao et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2017.

[34] Zhang et al., 2017.

[35] Leclercq et al., 2017.

[36] Kummeling et al., 2007.

slot server jepang akun pro jepang slot server kamboja akun pro kamboja slot mahjong slot ovo slot pg soft digmaan sabung ayam online slot mania slot zeus joker123 slot gacor slot jepang slot zeus akun vip slot pragmatic slot bet 100 sv388 mahjong ways pg soft slot maxwin zeus slot slot88 sv388 slot zeus slot princess sv388 pg soft mahjong ways slot zeus starlight princess joker123 slot thailand sv388 slot dana digmaan slot olympus starlight princess slot thailand slot gacor pgsoft slot zeus mahjong ways sv388 slot pragmatic starlight princess sv388 slot pragmatic slot pg soft starlight princess rtp slot thailand slot slot kamboja slot88 joker123 slot kamboja nolimit city slot thailand slot thailand slot thailand server thailand joker123 mahjong ways slot dana slot thailand fafaslot sv388 slot zeus joker123 sv388 slot thailand pg soft mahjong ways slot zeus starlight princess rtp slot slot mania sabung ayam online slot zeus slot pragmatic slot pgsoft slot gacor 777 slot88 sv388 sabung ayam online 66kbet ying77 dewaslot ladangtoto gaming88 slot thailand slot maxwin gaming88 slot123 mahjong ways starlight princess joker123 slot pg zseus slot servee thailand 66kbet gaming88 ying77 ladangtoto dewaslot sabung ayam online slot thailand slot77 slot thailand server thailand slot88 slot maxwin slot thailand server thailand slot88 66kbet ladangtoto ying77 slot thailand slot mahjong slot88 slot zeus pg soft slot gacor maxwin sv388 joker123 ladangtoto 66kbet ying77 ladangtoto slot thailand slot thailand server thailand slot maxwin slot88 pragmatic play judi bola live casino sv388 sbobet mahjong ways pragmaticplay sv388 sv388 pragmatic play slot gacor maxwin pg soft gates of olympus mahjong ways 2 starlight princess gates of olympus joker123 sv388 pg soft slot mahjong slot dana sv388 fafaslot idn poker joker123 mahjong ways slot88 slot maxwin slot dana joker123 sabung ayam online slot gacor maxwin mahjong ways 2 pg soft pragmatic play slot zeus sabung ayam online pg soft pragmatic slot petir slot olympus slot mania fafaslot slot mania fafaslot habanero ladangtoto ying77 66kbet gaming88 slot thailand server thailand sabung ayam online slot mania slot mahjong slot bet 200 slot dana slot hoki slot x500 slot pgsoft ladangtoto slot thailand slot kamboja slot jepang slot amerika slot mahjong slot gacor 2023 slot x500 slot88 slot thailand joker123 slot mahjong sabung ayam online slot zeus slot dana slot ovo slot habanero slot jdb slot thailand slot dana slot mahjong slot zeus slot pragmatic starlight princess sabung ayam online slot ovo slot gopay slot thailand slot vietnam slot kamboja slot mahjong slot pragmatic slot pgsoft slot x500 slot petir ladangtoto slot server kamboja nolimit city digmaan slot thailand dewaslot digmaan sv388 slot joker123 mahjong ways 2 slot zeus starlight princess slot88 pg soft slot olympus 66kbet ladang toto ying77 gaming88 dewaslot slot mahjong ladang toto pg soft 66kbet ying77 ladangtoto dewaslot scv388 sabung ayam online slot dana slot thailand mahjong ways sabung ayam joker123 starlight princess slot sabung ayam online live casino ladangtoto 66kbet 66k ladangtoto 66k ladangtoto digmaan slot pragmatic slot jepang slot china slot kamboja slot rusia slot malaysia slot amerika slot thailand slot zeus slot ovo slot dana slot gopay sicbo online roulette online joker123 slot mahjong tembak ikan online joker123 live casino slot123 66k ying77 ladangtoto sabung ayam online 66k ying77 ladangtoto live casino online sabung ayam online 66k ying77 ladangtoto slot thailand ladangtoto ladangtoto sv388 ladangtoto ladangtoto ladangtoto sv388 ladangtoto sv388 66kbet ying77 gaming88 dewaslot ladangtoto ladangtoto ying77 dewaslot 66kbet ying77 66kbet ladangtoto dewaslot gaming88 slot thailand slot zeus ladangtoto ying77 ladangtoto gaming88 dewaslot ying77 66k bet ladangtoto gaming88 ladangtoto 66k bet ying77bet sv388 66kbet ying77 ladangtoto 66k one ladangtoto ying77 slot maxwin 66k bet ying77bet ladangtoto slot zeus ying77 66k bet slot thailand slot thailand server thailand slot thailand server thailand server thailand server thailand slot thailand slot thailand server thailand slot thailand slot thailand server thailand slot thailand slot thailand slot thailand slot thailand slot thailand slot thailand slot thailand slot thailand slot thailand slot gacor ladangtoto2 slot thailand server thailand ying77 bet ying77 ladangtoto 66k bet ladangtoto ladangtoto ying77 slot gacor server thailand slot88 slot gacor slot thailand slot88 slot thailand ying77 ying77 powergaming88 slot thailand sv388 joker123 slot88 ladangtoto ladangtoto ladangtoto sv388 sabung ayam online slot thailand slot maxwin sv388 pg soft mahjong ways sv388 mahjong ways 2 sv388 slot thailand server thailand powergaming88 66k bet slot sv388 ladangtoto slot zeus slot gacor dewaslot ladangtoto 66k bet slot thailand slot spaceman sabung ayam online slot dana slot dana sabung ayam online sabung ayam online sabung ayam inline sicbo dragon tiger slot thailand slot thailand slot thailand slot mahjong pg soft slot pragmatic slotzeus sv388 digmaan slot thailand slot thailand slot thailand slot thailand slot88 slot thailand slot pgsoft slot slot mahjong zeus slot digmaan slot mania slot pulsa jdb slot slot777 slot shopee slot thailand fafaslot nolimit city slot princess fafaslot fafa slot slot princess slot gopay slot toto slot server thailand slot thailand slot77 slot gacor slot server thailand slot thailand akun gacor slot maxwin slot gacor slot thailand slot kakek zeus Joker123 Mahjong Ways 2 Sv388 Sbobet Slot Dana Slot Thailand slot macau slot thailand slot thailand slot88 situs slot wwg slot wm casino tembak ikan slot thailand slot wala meron slot thailand 66k bet slot daftar judi slot online indonesia slot mahjong ways mahjong ways slot gacor slot mawin slot gacor slot gacor slot thailand slot thailand slot gacor slot gacor slot gacor slot gacor slot thailand slot gacor judi slot slot thailand slot thailand slot thailand slot mahjong ways 2 slot demo pragmatic slot demo pg soft demo slot pragmatic slot gacor 4d slot pg soft pgslot pgsoft pgsoft sv388 slot88 pgsoft slot thailand slot88 slot thailand slot gacor slot ovo slot dana Situs Daftar Judi Slot Mahjong Ways 1 dan 2 PG Soft Online PG Soft : Daftar Situs Judi Slot Online Gacor Slot Kakek Zeus Daftar Link Slot Olympus Terbaru Slot Dana Daftar Judi Slot Online Indonesia Paling Gacor di Indonesia Sabung Ayam Online Sv388 Daftar Situs Judi Slot Online SLOT88 SLOT PG SOFT GACOR Bandar Slot Daftar Situs Judi Online Terbaik & Terpercaya Gacor power gaming lucky neko slot gacor slot gacor slot88 slot kakek slot pg slot kakek zeus slot dana slot maxwin slot server luar negeri slot thailand Link Daftar Situs Judi Slot Deposit Dana 20RB Tanpa Potongan Power Gaming : Situs Slot Gacor Online RTP Pragmatic Play Power Gaming : Situs Slot Gacor Online RTP Pragmatic Play Link Daftar Situs Judi Slot Deposit Dana 20RB Tanpa Potongan Slot Pragmatic - Link Alternatif Judi Slot Online Gacor Kakek Zeus Power Gaming : Situs Slot Gacor Online RTP Pragmatic Play Daftar Slot Dana Power Gaming : Situs Slot Gacor Online RTP Pragmatic Play lucky Neko Daftar & Login Slot PG Judi Slot 88 Online Power Gaming : Situs Slot Gacor Online RTP Pragmatic Play Power Gaming : Situs Slot Gacor Online RTP Pragmatic Play Power Gaming : Situs Slot Gacor Online RTP Pragmatic Play Power Gaming : Situs Slot Gacor Online RTP Pragmatic Play Power Gaming : Situs Slot Gacor Online RTP Pragmatic Play Power Gaming : Situs Slot Gacor Online RTP Pragmatic Play Power Gaming : Situs Slot Gacor Online RTP Pragmatic Play Power Gaming : Situs Slot Gacor Online RTP Pragmatic Play Power Gaming : Situs Slot Gacor Online RTP Pragmatic Play Power Gaming : Situs Slot Gacor Online RTP Pragmatic Play Slot Mahjong Ways 2 Mudah Jackpot Paus di PG Soft Hari ini 2023 Lucky Neko Situs Slot Gacor Pgsoft Hari Ini SITUS SABUNG AYAM SV388 ONLINE DAFTAR LINK LOGIN APK AGEN SV388 Daftar Judi Slot Online Indonesia Paling Gacor di Indonesia powergaming88